Why take a comprehensive approach

Successful activities address risk and protective factors across multiple settings (eg home and school) at different levels (eg individual, community and society). Working at several different levels increases the likelihood that your activity's goals will be achieved.

How to take a comprehensive approach

Comprehensive activities:

• have a strong theoretical base
• address the linkages between levels
• can involve multiple strategies targeting the same outcome at two or more levels.

Think about providing funding for multiple strategies, which work at different levels to target the same outcome. This is called an ecological model.

The ecological model

The ecological model is one of the most commonly used frameworks in public health. It classifies risk and protective factors at five levels:

1. Individual factors, eg bullying or victimisation and bystander awareness.
2. Relationship factors, eg negotiating consent and building healthy relationships.
3. Institutional factors, eg workplace cultures and policies.
4. Community factors, eg community awareness and attitudes towards violence.
5. Societal factors, eg challenging social attitudes and norms around gender inequalities, victim blaming and alcohol consumption.

Ecological model (based on World Health Organisation's 2002 World report on violence and health)

Evidence for a comprehensive approach

• National Framework for Sexual Assault Prevention — The Australian Government (2004) (PDF 218KB)
• What works in Sexual Violence Prevention and Education — Report for the Ministry of Justice (2008)
• What is effective primary prevention in sexual assault? — Australian Institute of Family Studies (2012)
• Conceptualising the prevention of sexual assault and the role of education — Australian Institute of Family Studies (2009)
• Evaluation of VicHealth's Respect, Responsibility and Equality Program (2013) (PDF 937KB)
• Effectiveness of interventions to prevent violence against women and girls — What Works to Prevent Violence (2014)
• Successful programmes are comprehensive, targeting multiple domains within the environment, multiple risk factors in multiple settings, and attending to the linkages between them — Wolfe et al. (2006), cited in Russell (2008)
• Collective promotion of equity and respect is likely to define the next phase of efforts to prevent violence against women — Graffunder et al. (2011)
• Explore the contribution that alcohol and other drugs may play in sexual assault — Adair (2006) cited in Russell (2008)
• Examine the concept of consent and coercion in programmes for adolescents — Adair (2006) cited in Russell (2008)
• Prevention approaches need to be part of a broader strategy concerning violence and healthy relationships — Mulroney (2003) cited in Russell (2008)
• Cover bullying and other forms of victimisation — MacIntryre & Carr (1999) cited in Russell (2008)
• Framing Best Practice: National standards for the primary prevention of sexual assault through education — Carmody (2009) (PDF 630KB)
• Toward a Multi-Level, Ecological Approach to the Primary Prevention of Sexual Assault — Casey & Lindhorst (2009)

Why integrate research and evaluation

Research and evaluation help you to:

• find out whether an activity is meeting its objectives
• provide evidence of the impact of an activity
• understand and address issues and unintended outcomes
• articulate evidence of success, which may help gain further funding
• build future evaluation capacity
• strengthen activities for the future.

How to integrate research and evaluation

Successful activities:

• have clear goals and systematically document their results
• adapt as new evaluations and research become available
• integrate evaluation strategies from the start.

Developing partnerships with researchers and universities can be a good way to enable research and evaluation of your programme.

Theories and models

Think about providing funding to support long-term, comprehensive, well-designed evaluation, and adapting your programme to align with new research findings.

Plan an evaluation

Evidence for integrating research and evaluation

• Evaluation strategy should be integrated from programme’s inception — Mulroney 2003; Davies et al., 2003, Hassall & Hanna 2007, all cited in Russell (2008)
• Programmes have clear goals and systematically document their results relative to their goals — Nation et al., 2003; Hassall & Hanna, 2007, cited in Russell (2008)
• New information reinforces and expands on previous material and provides necessary data for programmes to evolve — Lee, 2007, cited in Russell (2008)
• Evidence base drawn from evaluations that have grasped what on-the-ground initiatives are trying to do in their theory-driven sense — Kwok (2013)
• Evaluation practice must be focussed, engaged, personal, responsive, collaborative, meaningful, and transformational – and deeply participatory and learning-oriented — Kwok (2013)
• Framing Best Practice: National standards for the primary prevention of sexual assault through education – Carmody (2009) (PDF 630KB)
• Evaluations should identify the theoretical underpinnings of the programme in order to accurately judge the efficacy of various programme components — Flood, Fergus, Heenan, (2009) (PDF 1.3MB)

Why engage the wider community

Successful approaches require community participation in activity development and evaluation. Engaging the wider community means your activity will be responsive to local needs and issues.

How to engage the wider community

Your 'community' could be formed from your:

• geographic location (community of place)
• affiliation or identity (schools, ethnic communities)
• interests (community of practice).

Engaging community may include involving community members, practitioners, and leaders in the testing, development and evaluation of your activity. Existing community organisations may have local resources and expertise you can use.

It's important to ensure that:

• a diverse range of voices from the community are heard
• community values and cultures are respected
• your activity is tailored to its audience
• participants are treated with respect and dignity.

Think about providing funding for a community liaison role and for community consultation.

Evidence for engaging the wider community

• Working with adolescents within the education system — newsletter from the Australian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault (2005) (PDF)
• School-based violence prevention programmes — literature review for ACC (2007) (PDF 1.9MB)
• What works in Sexual Violence Prevention and Education — Report for the Ministry of Justice (2008)
• Innovations in Prevention — report for the US National Sexual Violence Resource Center (2012) (PDF 1.1M)
• Evaluation of VicHealth's Respect, Responsibility and Equality Program – Flood (2013) (PDF 938KB)
• Effectiveness of interventions to prevent violence against women and girls — What Works to Prevent Violence (2014)
• Fast Facts on the primary prevention of violence against women — Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse
• Programmes are community-led — Lee et al., 2007, cited in Russell (2008)
• Successful approaches require community participation in the testing, development, and evaluation — Urbis Key Young 2004, cited in Russell (2008)
• Use of local statistics have a greater impact than national statistics — Schwere, 2002, in Keel 2005, cited in Russell (2008)
• Development of programmes are responsive to local needs and issues — Mulroney, 2003; Davies et al., 2003, both cited in Russell (2008)
• Allow intensive interventions among particular populations or in particular settings — Flood (2013)
• Includes content that supports a broader community approach to prevention — Banyard, Moynihan, & Plante, 2007, cited in Russell (2008)
• Innovative programs view prevention as social change (as distinct from community education), and as needing to be tailored to the community — Townsend (2012)

Networks and partnerships

• Strategic partnerships offer a co-ordinated, collaborative approach to producing better outcomes — Davies et al., 2003, cited in Russell (2008)
• Linkages with other programmes and community activities support the development and achievement of common goals, objectives, and networks — Davies et al., 2003, cited in Russell (2008)
• Successful programmes increase communication and collaboration between domains — Hassall & Hanna, 2007, cited in Russell (2008)
• Support from external agencies is valued — Maxwell et al. (2010)

Why take a gender-based approach

Using a gender-based approach means that activities are informed by:

• a gendered analysis of violence against women
• the different social expectations of men and women
• concepts of masculinity and femininity
• how gender power dynamics play a role in perpetuating sexual violence.

How to take a gender-based approach

Engage both men and women in the design and delivery of prevention activities. Single-gender activities are generally found to be more effective than mixed-gender activities.

Effective female-only programmes can include discussions of:

• ways perpetrators behave
• peer pressure
• bystander issues
• victim blaming attitudes
• assertiveness training
• self‐defence skills.

Male-only programmes can include discussions of:

• peer and social pressure
• rape myths and stereotypes
• men and boys as victims
• how to respond to individuals who have been victimised.

Engage men as allies and encourage them to serve as positive role models. Avoid blaming men and solely casting them as potential perpetrators — this can result in disengagement or resistance to the ideas being put forward.

Evidence for a gender-based approach

• Respectful Relationships Education: Violence prevention and respectful relationships education in Victorian secondary schools — Flood, M., L. Fergus, and M. Heenan. (2009) (PDF 1.3MB)
• National Framework for Sexual Assault Prevention — The Australian Government (2004) (PDF 218KB)
• An Evidence-Based Review of Sexual Assault Preventive Intervention Programs — report for the US National Institute of Justice (2004) (PDF 2.4MB)
• Developing ethical sexual lives: Young people, sex and sexual assault prevention — Carmody and Willis (2006)
• What works in Sexual Violence Prevention and Education — Report for the Ministry of Justice (2008)
• Responding to young people disclosing sexual assault: A resource for schools — Australian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault (2008)
• Literature review on adult learning and violence prevention programmes with men — VicHealth (2008)
• Lightning Does Strike Twice: preventing sexual revictimisation — Ministry of Women's Affairs (2012)     

Male participation

• Engage men as allies rather than constructing them solely as potential perpetrators — Casey & Ohler, 2012; Albury et al., 2011; Katz, 1995, all cited in Russell (2008)
• Including males may shift the discourse of young women’s accountability, particularly surrounding alcohol consumption and ‘risk’ management, which currently dominates the prevention field — Carmody & Ovenden (2013)
• Encourage non-violent men to commit to serving as positive role models and recognise that men are also beneficiaries of prevention efforts — Ministry of Women’s Affairs (2012)
• Important that men are not excluded from the design, delivery, and receipt of programmes — Carmody, 2006, cited in Russell (2008)
• Avoid blaming men – this can result in disengaging men from the programme and cause a ‘rebound effect’ or resistance to the ideas being put forward — Winkel & De Kluever, 1997; Schwere, 2002, in Keel, 2005, both cited in Russell (2008)

Single-sex sessions

• Opportunities should be made to separately educate young men and women — Carmody & Willis, 2007, cited in Russell (2008)
• Mixed-gender programmes are generally found to be less effective than single-gender programmes — Vladutiu, Martin, & Macy (2011)
• Single sex sessions are part of effective prevention programmes — Urbis Key Young, 2004, cited in Russell (2008)
• Effective female-only programmes include: ways perpetrators behave, peer pressure, bystander issues, victim blaming attitudes, assertiveness training, self-defence skills — National Rape and Sexual Assault Prevention Project, 2000, in Adair 2006, cited in Russell (2008)
• All-female programmes are effective at improving rape attitudes, behavioural intent, rape awareness, and knowledge about sexual assault — Vladutiu, Martin, & Macy (2011)
• Effective male-only programmes include: peer and societal pressure, rape myths and stereotypes, men and boys as victims, how to respond to individuals who have been victimised — National Rape and Sexual Assault Prevention Project, 2000, in Adair, 2006, cited in Russell (2008)
• All-male programmes are effective at reducing rape-supportive behaviours and rape myth acceptance — Vladutiu, Martin, & Macy (2011)
• There is value in using different teaching strategies for different sexes; women should learn about risk and protective strategies and young men should learn about the impact of sexual assault on victims — Dyson & Flood, 2008; Flood, 2005/2006; Morrison, et al., 2004; Schewe 2002, in Keel, 2005, all cited in Russell (2008)

Why be well-resourced

Quality programmes, well-funded pilots, and skilled personnel are critical to success. Staff need to have capabilities beyond technical skill and knowledge, and need capacity to teach non-violent and desirable relationship skills.

How to be well-resourced

Ensure that presenters are well-trained and supported. They should:

• be well‐prepared to facilitate programmes
• feel well-supported
• not be overzealous in their self‐disclosure
• be equipped to deal with any potential disclosures that occur throughout the delivery of the programme.

Successful programmes have the resources to support:

• high-quality management and administration
• well-trained, well-supervised, and well-paid staff members, who find their work meaningful, stick with programmes long-term, and have the skills and knowledge to teach healthy relationship skills
• positive, family-friendly workplace environments
• quality programmes and well-funded pilots
• evaluation of long-term outcomes.

Provide funding to ensure that staff members have the skills they need to support programme goals, feel valued, and have long-term commitment to the programme. Consider setting aside funding for creating positive workplace environments.

Evidence for well-resourced activities

• School-based violence prevention programmes — literature review for ACC (2007) (PDF 1.1MB)
• What works in Sexual Violence Prevention and Education — Report for the Ministry of Justice (2008)
• Evaluation of the Wellington-based Sex + Ethics” programme (2011)
• Innovations in Prevention — report for the US National Sexual Violence Resource Center (2012) (PDF)
• Resourced to have high quality management, administrators, and well-trained, -supervised, and -paid staff — Davies et al., 2003, cited in Russell (2008)
• Funding to assess longer term outcomes — Davies et al., 2003, cited in Russell (2008)
• Quality programmes, well-funded pilots, and skilled personnel are critical to success — Shonkof & Phillips, 2000, cited in Russell (2008)
• Staffing longevity is integral to ability to do innovative work. Supported by fair wages, family-friendly workplaces, positive environments, and meaningful work — Townsend (2012)
• Staff need to have capabilities beyond technical skill and knowledge, and need capacity to teach non-violent and desirable relationship skills — Carmody et al. (2009)